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WORKING
PAPER SERIES:
ABSTRACT |
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WP No. 195
December 2005
Drought,
Agriculture, and
Rural
Livelihood:
A Case Study of
Bolangir
District, Orissa
Mahendra Nayak
Abstract
Bolangir is
officially
declared a
drought-prone
district.
However it is an
under-exploited
ecological base
where average
annual rainfall
is 1443 mm.
Poverty level in
this district is
the highest in
the country
(61.01% as per
the Union
Planning
Commission’s
estimates,
1999-2000) where
one encounters
frequent
occurrence of
starvation
deaths, natural
disasters like
floods and
droughts. As a
consequence, the
district suffers
from chronic
problems of
abject poverty
and
malnutrition,
distress induced
migration, food
insecurity and
even starvation
deaths. Majority
of households
have no
satisfactory
access to
institutional
loan and
borrowed from a
variety of
informal sources
both from inside
and outside the
villages. It is
precisely in
this context,
the present
paper examines
the problems
associated with
drought somewhat
historically and
politically. In
particular, the
paper attempts
to answer to
some of the
important and
puzzling
questions such
as why does the
district
experience
drought despite
a good rainfall,
which is much
higher than the
national
average? Is the
district really
facing water
scarcity or is
it the
reflection of
the poor water
governance in
the state? On
the contrary, if
the present plan
of linking the
Mahanadi with
other rivers in
peninsular
India, it is
bound to
increase poverty
and
unemployment,
keeping the
state under
severe drought
conditions. The
analysis is
based on the
secondary data
(published by
various
government
agencies) and
primary data
collected from
the village
studies
conducted in the
district during
the year
2001-02.
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WP No.194
September 2005
Farm Level
Land and Water
Productivity in
Tank Irrigation:
Some
Methodological
Issues
K.
Sivasubramaniyan,
R. Sakthivadivel
Abstract
Agriculture
consumes a lion
share of
available water
which is
becoming
increasingly
scarce
day-by-day. For
proper
management of
agricultural
water it is
essential to
understand how
much water is
currently used
for crop
production and
other uses; how
much is needed
in the coming
decades; and to
what extent and
in what ways
they can be met
with. In the
process of
agricultural
water
management,
efficiency of
water use -in
terms of the
quantum of water
released at the
source to the
fraction of
water actually
required for
crop growth- is
considered
important to
understand the
current levels
of water use in
the surface and
groundwater
irrigation.
Apart from water
use efficiency,
the water
productivity is
also an
important
parameter to
reckon with.
Obviously, the
volume of water
used for
irrigation
through surface
as well as
groundwater is
the basis to
measure water
productivity. In
order to
estimate the
efficiency of
agricultural
water use as
well as its
productivity a
small river
basin, namely
the Cheyyar
sub-basin of the
Palar basin, in
Tamil Nadu is
taken up for
investigation
under the
IWMI-TATA Policy
Research
Programme.
The main
objective of
this research is
to compute farm
level land and
water
productivity
under tank
irrigation. This
paper presents
the findings of
the study based
on the fieldwork
carried out in
seven tanks in
Tiruvannamalai
district. The
findings
indicate that
the land and
water
productivity
differ
considerably
with its
location from
the source of
supply and
access to well
water. Either
the tank supply
alone or the
well water alone
does not help
the farmer to
get more
returns. Both
these sources
should be used
conjunctively to
get maximum
returns in tank
irrigation. It
is also
suggested that
“community
wells” developed
within tank
ayacuts will
serve the
purpose of
maintaining
equity among
farmers
especially among
the marginal,
small and
farmers who do
not get adequate
supply from both
the tanks and
wells.
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WP No.193
June 2005
Water
Governance:
A Historical
UnderstandingOf
Mahanadi River
Basin, Orissa
Sushanta Kumar
Mahapatra
Abstract
Many studies on
irrigation in
colonial India
are on the
Gangetic valley,
northwestern and
western India. A
comprehensive
analysis of the
interface
between
irrigation and
agrarian change
in eastern India
has not been
discussed
adequately so
far. This is
particularly in
the case of
Orissa state.
The present work
makes a modest
effort to fill
up this gap.
Several
socio-economic,
technological
and political
transformations
that took place
in Orissa over a
period of time
have altered her
socio, political
institution.
Against these
changes, the
present study
aims to document
the development
of various
irrigation
systems in
Orissa in
conjunction with
other
technological
development
during pre- and
post-
independence
period. The
subject of
governance is so
serious that
without
addressing it in
adequate measure
in the State,
integrated
development and
management of
the water
resources for
realising
sustainable
water will only
be a reflective
exercise. Though
the present work
predominantly
focuses on
Hirakud Command
Area under
Mahanadi river
basin, instances
from other
districts of
Orissa were used
as
illustrations.
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Working
Paper No. 192
March 2005
Creative
Social Research:
Rethinking
Theories and
Methods and the
Calling of an
Ontological
Epistemology of
Participation
Ananta Kumar
Giri
Abstract
Modern social
research, as we
know it now,
emerged as a
part of rise of
modern social
sciences in the
context of
transition to
modernity. As an
enterprise of
modernity social
research
reflected some
of the
foundational
assumptions of
modernity such
as the primacy
of epistemology
and an easy
equation between
society and
nation-state.
But all these
assumptions have
been subjected
to fundamental
interrogations
in the last
decades and
century in
varieties of
social movements
and new
movements of
ideas. In the
background of
critiques of
modernity,
social movements
and processes of
transformations
the present
essay submits
some proposals
for a creative
and critical
social
research. It
explores ways of
moving beyond
mere
denunciations
and critiques
and embodying
transformational
theories and
methods which
would facilitate
creative and
critical
research. The
essay also calls
for a new
vocation of
social research
by pleading for
a simultaneous
engagement in
activism and
creative
understanding,
fieldwork and
philosophical
reflections,
ontological
self-cultivation
and epistemic
labor of
learning. The
present essay
presents some
proposals for
rethinking
theories and
methods. It
discusses ways
of rethinking
society and
subjectivity and
pleads for a
frame of
ontological
sociality. It
submits some
proposals for
rethinking
method,
especially
overcoming the
dualism of
qualitative and
quantitative,
ontology and
epistemology.
It pleads for
border crossing
between
philosophy and
social sciences,
a multi-valued
logic of
autonomy and
interpenetration
and an
ontological
epistemology of
participation.
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WP No. 191
December 2004
Microfinance –
the Silver
Bullet for
Empowerment:
Some Questions
K. Kalpana
The central
focus of this
paper is a
critical reading
of literature
documenting the
experience of
microcredit
programmes in
empowering women
and transforming
gender
relations. Based
largely on
Bangladesh
experience, the
paper begins by
delineating the
global
institutional
context and the
forces
underpinning the
emergence of
women as the
major actors in,
and targets of,
these programmes.
The rise of the
empowerment
paradigm, the
‘empowerment’
impact of
processes of
loan use and
outcomes of loan
access for
women, the
assumed linear
relationship
between
microcredit
access and
empowerment
outcomes – these
are some of the
issues
critically
reviewed in the
paper. Besides
revisiting some
of these issues
in the light of
the Indian
self-help
group-based
microfinance
experience, the
paper suggests
other research
questions worthy
of examination
in the Indian
context.
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Working Paper
No: 190, August
2004
GATT, WTO AND
Rules on
Regional
Integration
Moana Bhagabati
Abstract
Since
the decade of
the eighties,
the global
economy has been
marked by
fundamental
changes, the
most pervasive
of which have
been in the
realm of trade.
Most developing
countries have
opened up their
economies, often
dictated by
compulsions of
the
macroeconomic
adjustment
process they had
undertaken.
Trade
liberalization
is being pursued
as a primary
objective. The
policy regime
supporting this
strategy has
been governed
first by the
General
Agreement on
Tariffs and
Trade (GATT),
and subsequent
to the
mid-nineties by
the World Trade
Organization (WTO).
While such
developments
have underlined
and strengthened
the efficacy of
the multilateral
trading system,
a parallel trend
has sought to
undermine the
pillar of
multilateralism.
The second rise
of regionalism,
marked by the
proliferation of
regional trading
arrangements (RTAs)
is a clear
indication that
there is a
renewed interest
in establishing
regional
economic
groupings by
most countries
of the world.
The prolonged
duration of the
Uruguay Round of
Multilateral
Trade
Negotiations was
believed to have
undermined the
efficacy of the
multilateral
trading system,
and led
countries to
seek regional
partners (though
not in the
geographic
sense) for
achieving gains
from trade.
However, the
number of such
groupings and
trade blocs has
continued to
increase even
after the
multilateral
trade accord was
concluded and
its
implementation
placed under the
aegis of the WTO.
Though these
trends in the
global economy
are seemingly
contradictory,
the GATT and
subsequently the
WTO, has not
been
antithetical to
the
establishment of
regional trade
groupings. The
GATT Contracting
Parties and the
WTO Members are
allowed to enter
into such
arrangements
provided they
eliminate rather
than just lower
withinunion
trade barriers
on
‘substantially
all trade’. Such
arrangements
must also not
raise trade
barriers on
goods produced
outside the
union, other
than those that
existed prior to
the formation of
the arrangement.
These exception
to the most
favoured-nation
clause, on which
rests the thesis
of
multilateralism,
are contained in
Article XXIV of
the GATT, which
sanctions the
establishment of
regional trading
groups.
As the global
trading system
seems poised
between
regionalism and
multilateralism,
the debate is
keenly followed
at the WTO. In
1996, the
general council
established the
Committee on
Regional Trade
Agreement to
examine the
regional
initiatives
notified to the
WTO, with a
fundamental
mandate to study
how regional
agreements might
affect the
multilateral
trading system,
and what the
relationship
between the two
kinds of
initiatives
should ideally
be.
This paper
traces the
origin and
evolution of the
provisions
within the GATT
that permit the
establishment of
RTAs, and
primarily
concentrates on
Article XXIV of
the GATT with a
view to
understanding
the legal
underpinnings
and rationale of
the regionalism
phenomenon.
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Working Paper
No: 189, June
2004
The Shifting
Trajectories in
Microfinance
Discourse:
A critical
reading of the
Anti-Poverty
Dimensions of
Microfinance
programmes
K. Kalpana
Abstract
This
paper attempts
to trace the
paradigm shift
away from an
earlier
conviction in
the presumed
ability of
microfinance to
function as a
silver bullet
that lifts poor
households above
the poverty line
through a
virtuous cycle
of .more income,
more credit,
more
investment.,
towards a more
cautious
approach
emphasizing the
protectional, as
opposed to the
promotional,
dimensions of
microfinance.
The discussion
begins by
distinguishing
the current
generation of
microfinance
programmes and
institutions
from an older
generation of
rural credit
programmes for
the poor, based
on differences
at the level of
transactional
technologies and
ideological
perspectives in
the underlying
conceptualization
of credit. Much
of the
literature
reviewed in this
paper pertains
to the
experience of
Bangladesh, home
to some of the
earliest and
oldest
microfinance
programmes and
institutions.
The paper ends
by reflecting on
some of the
issues that the
shifting
conceptualization
of microfinance
poses for the
practice of
Indian self-help
group-based
microfinance.
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Working Paper
No: 188, June
2004
Facilitating
India’s Trading
Environment: An
Overview
Nirmal Sengupta
and Moana
Bhagabati
Abstract
As tariff levels
have declined
over the years,
growing
attention has
been directed to
transaction
costs. In view
of this, the
Task Force on
Indirect Taxes (Kelkar
Committee) dealt
with trade
facilitation (as
a measure to cut
down transaction
costs) alongside
tariff
reduction. In
the WTO agenda,
this is one of
the newer issues
under
consideration. A
1998 EXIM Bank
study among
Indian firms
estimated that
the perceived
avoidable
transaction
costs accounted
for about 10.78%
of export
revenues. The
good news is . a
resurvey found
that several
trade
facilitating
reforms
succeeded in
eliminating
about 60% of
this in just
five years. The
EXIM Bank study,
mostly about
dwell time of
cargo, is only a
partial estimate
of potential
benefits of
trade
facilitation.
There are
numerous other
areas like
simplification
of data and
documentation,
electronic data
interchange,
transparency,
faster clearance
and modern risk
management,
improvement in
financial
matters, transit
with
neighbouring
countries, where
reforms are
needed. Besides,
benefits arise
both directly
and indirectly.
For realising
benefits,
domestic reforms
must match with
trade
facilitation in
foreign trade.
Otherwise
domestic traders
will be at a
disadvantage
while global
traders get the
privileges.
However, in
global trade,
restrictive
Non-Tariff
Barriers (NTB.s)
like Sanitary
and
Phytosanitary
Measures (SPS)
are reducing the
benefits of
trade
facilitation
measures
undertaken by
countries like
India.
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Working Paper
No: 187, May
2004
Interfaces in
Local Governance
- A Study in
Karnataka
Kripa AnanthPur
Abstract
With the
introduction of
Panchayati Raj
Institutions in
India, new
spaces and
initiatives have
been designed to
deepen democracy
at the local
level and make
it more
inclusive. These
strengthened
Grama Panchayats
often co-exist
with a range of
intersecting
local
institutions
particularly
those that are
apparently
rooted in
traditions and
customs -
Customary
Panchayats.
Research in
Karnataka
indicates that
rather than
shrinking in
face of
modernity, these
institutions
have found ways
to interact,
often
positively, with
Grama Panchayats.
There is some
evidence to
suggest that
Customary
Panchayats
themselves both
influence and
adapt to the
existence of
Grama Panchayats.
A
deeperunderstanding
of the dynamics
of this
interaction
would enhance
the capacity of
government
agencies and
social movements
to intervene
effectively to
help promote the
interests of the
poor and
disadvantaged
and strengthen
local
governance.
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Working Paper
No. 186 - April
2004
Padmini
Swaminathan
The Trauma of
‘Wage
Employment’ and
the ‘Burden of
Work’ for Women
in India:
Evidences and
Experiences
Abstract
Approached from
any discipline –
demography,
economics,
sociology etc.,
- women’s
participation in
paid employment
and particularly
participation
outside
the
household domain
has uniformly
been given a
positive
connotation. In
demography, for
example, the
seemingly high
correlation
between increase
in female WPR
and reduction in
fertility rate
has catapulted
this statistical
finding into a
policy decision,
wherein growth
in population in
populous LDCs is
sought to be
controlled
through, among
other things,
larger
participation of
women in paid
employment. In
economics, where
the study of
poverty is a
major
preoccupation,
wage employment
is central among
the
prescriptions
for poverty
reduction.
Further, paid
employment for
women is also
generally
associated with
greater economic
independence
resulting in
better household
nutritional
status as well
as better scope
for education of
girl children.
Sociological
studies of
women’s
participation in
wage employment
stress the
enhanced status
and autonomy
that such work
participation
provide for
women, which in
turn confers on
them greater
decisionmaking
power. The
celebration of
statistical
increases in
female work
participation
rates has, more
often than not,
hidden the fact
that most
employed women
have no formal
‘worker’ status;
this in turn
means that
recourse to any
form of action
for redressal of
grievances
becomes
infructuous,
since legal
recognition as
‘worker’ is a
necessary
condition for
most courses of
action.
At another
level, there is
increasing
documentation of
the ‘Triple
Overlap’ of
gender
stratification,
economy and
family
(Blumberg,
1991). Insights
from these
studies provide
an understanding
of how housework
is the aspect of
family life most
resistant to
change.
Occupational
demands and
expectation
continue to be
based on the
assumption that
the worker is an
individual who
is relatively
free of domestic
and family
responsibilities.
Further, an
underlying
dimension of
modernization is
the increasing
centrality of
individual goal
attainment
(Bernhardt,
1993). This has
important, and,
more often,
negative
implications for
women. For women
to become
modern or
compete with men
on equal terms
would imply that
they are
unburdened by
household duties
and childcare.
Otherwise they
must make
adjustments at a
personal level,
for example, by
working part
time or by
limiting the
sizes of their
families, if
they wish to
combine the two
roles. The
division of
tasks within the
family or its
reorganization
so that both
genders share
the
responsibilities,
is not yet a
subject of
negotiation for
most households,
whatever their
social and
economic level.
An important
consequence of
combining the
tasks of
production and
reproduction is
that it has a
serious impact
on well-being.
For the poor,
and poor working
women in
particular, the
wages received
are no
compensation for
the high work
intensity and
the pervasive
practice of
sexual
harassment that
they have to put
up with on a
day-to-day
basis. And yet,
the aspects of
how
intensification
of work time as
well as the work
itself impact on
well-being have
received scant
attention in
literature. This
paper attempts
to address some
of these issues.
The paper is
organized as
follows. In
Section I we
provide a brief
overview of the
statistical
dimensions of
the problem of
employment,
unemployment,
and [officially
documented
figures of]
declines in
female work
participation
rates [WPRs].
This section
also discusses
the conceptual
inadequacy of
our national
data systems to
capture the
range of
activities that
women in
particular are
engaged in, as
well as the
inability of
these systems,
as they are
presently
organized, to
recognize the
changes in the
organization of
these and other
activities over
time. Section II
reviews select
literature that
attempt to
synthesize the
themes of women,
work and well
being, as well
as provide a
conceptual
framework to
contextualize
the varied
nature of
women’s work.
Section III
reproduces
highlights from
conversations
with women
workers on the
themes of
‘women, work and
health’ based on
two studies
conducted by the
present author.
We have
preferred to
concentrate on
the most
vulnerable of
our laboring
population,
namely, women
workers, since
understanding
and documenting
the context in
which they work
and live, and
the manner in
which they cope
with and
negotiate these
varied spaces,
bring out quite
starkly the
dynamics of
contemporary
capitalism in
developing
countries.
In most of these
countries
including India,
economic growth
has thus far
never been able
to address
issues of
unemployment,
adequacy of
wages, social
security;
further,
investment in
basic
infrastructure
such as fuel,
sanitation,
drinking water,
etc., have
always been and
continue to
remain abysmally
low and
neglected. In
addition, the
search for cheap
prices has more
often than not
been translated
to mean search
for cheap labor
with women labor
bearing the
brunt of the
changing nature
of capitalist
onslaught.
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Working Paper
No.- 185
February 2004
Delegation to
Devolution: West
Bengal
Manabi Majumdar
&
Indrashis
Banerjee
Abstract
Is the tax
revenue-dependent
state – national
or sub-national
– more
responsive to
the needs and
concerns of its
tax-paying
citizens than
the one relying
mostly on
unearned income?
Set within this
larger quest for
the linkage
between fiscal
process and
political
process at the
sub-national
level, this
paper takes a
prior look at
the political
and legislative
history of the
development of
the Panchayat
Raj system in
the State of
West Bengal, how
the
decentralized
‘local’ state
has evolved from
a ‘development’
panchayat to a
‘party’
panchayat to its
recent
incarnation as a
‘planning’ and
‘resource
mobilizing’
panchayat. Based
upon a thematic
analysis of
relevant Acts
and documents,
Legislative
assembly debates
and proceedings,
and interviews
with academics,
administrators
and politicians,
we summarize our
findings
regarding the
constellation of
forces that has
made the
decentralization
experiment
happen in the
State, the sweep
of legislative
measures, the
concerns and
conflicts of
major political
parties evinced
through Assembly
debates, the
nature of
party-PRI
relationship and
the relationship
between ‘local
power’ and
State-level
politics. This
politico-legislative
narrative sets
the contours of
our future
research on
resource
mobilizing and
micro-planning
potentials and
practices of
Panchayati Raj
Institutions and
their
redistributive
effects.
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Working Paper
No. 184 -
February 2004
Delegation to
Devolution:
Karnataka
V. K. Natraj &
Kripa Ananthpur
Abstract
Devolution of
Authority to
local government
institutions
show
considerable
variation across
states in India.
This is in spite
of the 73rd
Amendment to the
Constitution of
India which
mandates a more
of less uniform
structure of
Panchayat Raj
Institutions
throughout the
country. The
persistence of
variation in
regard to the
performance of
PRIs needs to be
explained with
reference to
factors which
appear to be
specific to the
context of a
State. A
historical
narrative
tracing the
evolution of
devolution in a
state throws
light on that
set of factors
which has
impacted,
positively or
otherwise, on
the growth and
performance of
local government
institutions.
The present
narrative
dealing with the
state of
Karnataka
approaches
devolution
within this
overarching
framework.
It is seen that
Karnataka’s
impressive
performance is
attributable to
its social and
political
configurations.
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Working Paper
No. 183 -
January 2004
Efficiency of
Water Use in
Indian
Agriculture
A.Vaidyanathan
In collaboration
with
K.Sivasubramaniyan
Abstract
Increase in the
demand for water
in all sectors
especially in
agriculture, and
dwindling nature
of the per
capita
availability of
its supply in
recent decades
induced
scientists and
researchers to
focus their
attention more
on efficient use
of available
water. Informed
discussion of
the problem and
its solutions is
impeded by the
lack of adequate
and reliable
knowledge of how
much water is
used, where, for
what purpose and
how efficiently.
This paper is a
modest attempt
to fill this
gap.
This paper
presents
estimates of the
‘consumptive
use’ of water in
crop production;
the ratio of
consumptive use
to gross water
tilization; and
productivity per
unit of
consumptive use.
This is done
separately for
different crop
groups in
irrigated and
rain-fed lands,
by states and
agro-climatic
regions and
major river
basins. The
estimates cover
major crop
groups for
different
territorial
units
(agro-climatic
regions and
river basins) at
two points of
time namely
1966-68 and
1991-93. It
shows that
considerable
amount of the
relevant data
are available in
the public
domain and that,
despite their
inadequacies and
doubtful
reliability, can
be used to give
us a
conceptually
well-grounded
and comparable
picture of the
characteristics
of agricultural
water use. The
picture, though
necessarily
approximate and
leaves room for
refinement, is
nevertheless
useful and can
serve as a basis
for a more
informed
discussion of
the problems of
this sector.
Our estimates
suggest that
the total
consumptive use
of water by
crops in the
early nineties
is around 660
bcm per annum.
Irrigated crops
comprise about
40 percent of
total crop area
but - they
use much more
water per unit
area - they
account for some
55 percent of
total
consumptive use.
Somewhat,
over half of the
total
consumptive use
by irrigated
crops is
contributed by
irrigation and
the balance from
rainfall. Rice,
wheat and annual
crops account
for nearly 80
percent of total
use by irrigated
crops compared
to less than 20
percent in the
case of rain-fed
crops.
The
large
inter-regional
variations in
consumptive use
rates reflect
the combined
effect of
climate, extent
of irrigation
and crop
patterns.
Productivity of
irrigated crops
is everywhere
higher than that
of un-irrigated
crops but again
in varying
degrees.
Surprisingly,
however,
productivity per
mm of
consumptive use
is not always
higher in
irrigated
compared to
rainfed crops.
Even where the
former is higher
the difference
appears far less
striking than
one would
expect. The
ratio of
consumptive use
from irrigation
to gross
utilization of
water from
surface and
ground water (a
measure of
technical
efficiency of
irrigation) is
around 38
percent for the
selected basins
taken as a
whole. It is
relatively less
(26-27 percent)
in the basins of
east flowing
peninsular
rivers, 40 to 50
percent in
Ganges and Indus
basins; and 55
percent in
basins of west
flowing rivers
(excluding the
west coast
rivers).
Differences in
the extent of
groundwater use
seem to account
for these
differences to
some extent.
Significant
changes in
volume and
sources of water
use as well as
technical
efficiency of
irrigation have
taken place
between the mid
sixties and
early nineties.
Total
consumptive use
has increased by
about 18
percent;
consumptive use
by un-irrigated
crops has
marginally
declined and
that of
irrigated crops
increased by
some 90 percent
overall.
Consumptive use
of irrigation
water has nearly
doubled.
Rainfed crop
patterns seem to
have become on
the average
slightly more
water intensive
and those of
irrigated crops
slightly less
water intensive
over this
period. The
picture however
varies across
states. The
technical
efficiency of
irrigation has
increased in all
- but one basin
group - but
unevenly.
The current
estimates of
water use are
subject to
several
qualifications
and must be
viewed as first
approximations.
They are being
presented in
order to elicit
comments on the
underlying
assumptions and
estimating
procedures.
Clearly there is
need and scope
for more refined
and detailed
work on both
methodology and
estimation. Some
directions of
further research
to this end are
indicated.
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Working Paper
No. 182 -
December 2003
A Gossipmonger's
Revisit to
Chettipalayam
S.Neelakantan
Abstract
Chettipalayam is
a little hamlet
located on the
banks of
Amaravathi
river. The paper
traces its
history and
describes its
characteristics
on the eve of
independence.
Agriculture was
the basis of its
economic, social
and cultural
life then. The
river was its
life stream. It
was a wet
village with a
large amount of
dry lands. A
local variety of
jajmani system
prevailed.
Attached
labourers
performed the
tasks set by
supervisory
landlords. The
main source of
irrigation was
Thirumanilayoor
channel. Lower
ayacutdars
extended a
watchful eye on
the extent of
irrigation in
the hamlet
through the
office of Vaikal
Maniagar. In
1950 PWD took
over the control
of the channel,
and brought to
an end some of
the traditional
functions of ‘kudimaramath’.
The old Amaravathi basin
irrigation
system before
the construction
of a reservoir
had twenty five
channels
branching off
the river and
irrigated about
32000 acres.
The
history of the
reservoir is
briefly traced.
The Karur and
Kulithalai taluk
farmers (lower
riparians) were
afraid that they
would lose their
accustomed
riparian rights
if a reservoir
was constructed
at Udumalpet.
Their opposition
to the
construction and
consequent
actions are
sketched. The
solemn assurance
by the
government in
1952 and 1953
that their
rights would be
protected is
highlighted. The
fact that a
conflict began
in the very
first year after
the
construction of
the reservoir is
outlined.
The
combination of
pump set and
pipeline broke
the barrier
imposed by
gravity on
extension of
irrigation to
lands located at
higher
elevations. From
the 1960 onwards
river water was
abstracted for
extension of
irrigation along
the entire
length of the
river. Upper riparians
commanded more
political
influence. They
have extended
the area
irrigated both
in the
Amaravathi Main
Canal area and
along the course
of the river.
Downstream,
irrigation was
extended along
the banks of the
river. Revenue,
PWD and
Electricity
Board
authorities were
endowed with
discretion to
regulate the
drawing of water
from the river.
This has led to
the
proliferation of
rent seeking
activities.
Five major
changes took
place in the
Chettipalayam
region between
1960s and now.
-
There was a
change in the
cropping pattern
and agrarian
relations.
Sugarcane and HYV crops
replaced the
traditional
Punjai (dry)
crops. Cash
wages and
contract labour
became common.
Supervisory
landlords lost
their lands to
owner-cultivators.
-
Karur, the
neighbouring
town, became an
exporter of
textiles. This
urban change had
a major impact
on the village.
Labour migrated
to the towns.
Agriculture
faces scarcity
of labour.
-
Sand mining in
the river
expanded
rapidly. The
hamlet
unsuccessfully
attempted to
protect its sand
cover. Sand
cover enabled
recharge and
regeneration of
water in the
river. Loss of
sand has reduced
the water
availability for
summer
irrigation. The
ground water
table has gone
down. But more
and more tube
wells are coming
into existence.
The river sand
has almost
disappeared.
-
The dyeing
factories in Karur, which
were first
started in the
1960s and
multiplied
later, began to
consume large
amounts of water
and started
polluting the
channels and
also the river
adjacent to the
villages where
they were
located. In
times of
scarcity, they
began to
purchase water.
Farmers have
found that it
was more
profitable to
sell water than
to use it for
irrigation.
Water sales have
given a fillip
to tube well
construction.
Ground water
table is sinking
further.
-
The struggle
for water for
drinking,
irrigation and
industry has
been compounded
by the struggle
to protect the
water sources
from pollution
from effluents
discharged into
the channels.
The State has
failed to keep
up its promise
to the lower
riparians that
their ancient
rights would be
protected.
The hamlet
suffered the
most serious
drought in the
period 2001-03.
It successfully
traded off its
water for
protection from
pollution in
2002.
Agriculture is
still the only
major occupation
of the hamlet.
However,
agriculture has
ceased to be the
basis of its
life. The river
has become
anaemic. The
young men and
women of the
hamlet are on
the lookout for
escape routes
from
agriculture. Its
future remains
uncertain.
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Working Paper
No. 181 -
October 2003
Intellectual
Property Rights
for Traditional
Knowledge –
Economic
Analysis of an
Incentive System
K. Aparna
Bhagirathy
Abstract
The current
interest in
Traditional
Knowledge in the
context of
Intellectual
Property Rights
is largely on
account of its
importance as a
valuable
resource base to
future
innovations and
growth in
emerging sectors
such as
biotechnology
and genetic
engineering. The
Convention on
Biological
Diversity (CBD),
1992 mandates
that countries
develop national
systems to
regulate access
to and ensure
sustainable use
of biological
resources and
associated
traditional
knowledge,
particularly in
the context of
their commercial
utilization. In
order to
implement this,
the CBD further
provides for the
recognition and
reward of
indigenous and
local
communities for
their role in
conservation and
use of
biological
resources
through
equitable
sharing of
benefits arising
out of the
commercial
utilization of
their knowledge,
innovations and
practices.
Intellectual
property rights
(IPR) systems
are a means to
define the
rights of the
holders of
traditional
knowledge and to
transfer a share
in the benefits
from commercial
innovations
developed from
their existing
knowledge. Over
the last decade,
the debate on
IPR protection
for traditional
knowledge has
been mired in
several
political, legal
and ethical
issues, but
there has
surprisingly
been, very
little economic
research in the
area,
especially,
given that
conflicts in
intellectual
property can be
resolved using
guidelines from
economic
theories of
incentives for
innovation. In
this paper, such
a framework is
drawn up using
the theory of
cumulative
innovation so as
to obtain
guidelines for
designing IPR
systems for
encouraging
innovations
based on
traditional
knowledge and
establishing
mechanisms for
equitable
sharing of
benefits arising
thereon.
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Working Paper
No. 180 -
August 2003
Does Better
Health Influence
Economic
Performance in
India?
An
Exploratory
Analysis at the
District Level
Atheendar S.
Venkataramani
Abstract
The effect of
health on both
micro and
macroeconomic
performance is
now well
established.
However, in the
few studies
carried out at
the macro level
for India, the
link between the
two has been
shown to be
somewhat
tenuous. In this
short study, we
consider the
impact of health
on economic
performance by
studying
district level
data for
agricultural
productivity.
Using two sets
of
cross-sectional
data (from
1980-81 and
1990-91), and
after addressing
issues of
endogeneity, we
find that
improved health
has a positive
and significant
impact on
agricultural
productivity.
Given its
intrinsic and
instrumental
values, the
obvious policy
recommendation
is for increased
investment in
health.
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Working Paper
No. 179 - May
2003
Conditions and
Characteristics
of Well
Irrigation
Under Palar
Basin, Tamil
Nadu
A.Vaidyanathan,
K.Sivasubramaniyan
and
S.Mariasusai
Abstract
This study
demonstrates
that properly
designed sample
surveys of wells
and well owners
provide an
independent
check on
official data on
the number of
wells, the
number in use,
energisation and
area irrigated.
By studying
villages in
different
segments of a
basin selected
on the basis of
a typological
classification
(reflecting
differences in
the categories
of wells and
their density)
and a more
rigorous
sampling within
villages, one
could get a far
more detailed
and accurate
picture of the
characteristics
of well
irrigation, its
current use
patterns and
variations
between
different
segments,
categories of
wells and
classes of
farmers within
it. They also
help reconstruct
the spatial and
temporal
patterns of
evolution in
groundwater
exploitation and
its impact on
the water table.
That the amount
of information,
which can be
obtained by such
a survey, is far
more and far
richer than
anything
currently
available,
should be
obvious from the
results of our
inquiry in the
Palar basin. It
highlights the
rich and complex
heterogeneity of
conditions and
experience even
in a small
basin. The
findings call
for the commonly
held beliefs
about these
patterns – eg.
The role of
location, farm
size and water
markets – that
are called into
question. In
doing so, they
also help
redefine the
focus and
methods of
investigating
the factors
underlying the
dynamics of
groundwater
exploitation,
their
implications for
the future and
ways to address
the emerging
problems. This
is not to
suggest that the
surveys and the
information
obtained from
them are
complete or flaw
less. The
selection of
villages based
on typologies
are inadequate
basis for
deriving
statistically
reliable
estimates for
the basin and
its segments.
Information
provided by
respondents,
especially
regarding the
past, are
affected by
recall lapses
and even biases.
It does not
cover a crucial
aspect namely
the quantum of
water extracted
and applied.
This information
cannot be
obtained by
interviews but
call for
systematic
measurements
which are time
consuming and
expensive. In
order to get a
more accurate
idea of
groundwater
dynamics, such
surveys and
measurements
need to be
repeated at
periodic
intervals taking
care to ensure
comparability of
concepts,
methods and
estimates. Such
an approach can
work if research
institutions can
be persuaded to
commit
themselves to
periodic surveys
repeated over a
reasonably long
period and
assured of
financial
support to
implement the
programme.
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Working Paper
No. 178 -
January 2003
Knowledge and
Human Liberation
:
Jurgen
Habermas, Sri
Aurobindo and
Beyond
Ananta Kumar
Giri
Abstract
Knowledge and
human liberation
are epochal
challenges now
and a key
question here is
what is the
meaning of
knowledge and
the meaning of
human
liberation. The
paper argues
that knowledge
means not only
knowledge of
self, society
and Nature as
conceived within
the predominant
dualistic logic
of modernity but
also knowledge
of
transcendental
self beyond
sociological
role playing,
knowledge of
Nature beyond
anthropocentric
reduction and
control, and
knowledge of
cosmos, god and
transcendence in
an
interconnected
spirit of
autonomy and
interpenetration.
Liberation means
not only
liberation from
oppressive
structures but
also liberation
from one’s ego
and the will to
control and
dominate. The
paper discusses
the
transformative
link between
knowledge and
liberation
through a
critical
dialogue with
Jurgen Habermas
and Sri
Aurobindo,
focusing mainly
on their works,
Knowledge and
Human Interests
and
Synthesis of
Yoga. The
paper does not
simply compare
and contrast
between Habermas
and Sri
Aurobindo but
seeks to create
a condition for
transformative
criticism for
both Habermas
and Sri
Aurobindo. It
argues that
while Habermas’
rationalistic
approach to
knowledge and
human interest
can be deepened
by Sri
Aurobindo’s yoga
of integral
knowledge, Sri
Aurobindo’s
aspiration for
creating a
spiritual
society can be
facilitated by
formation of
appropriate
public spheres
as in the
process both the
categories of
self and public
sphere are
fundamentally
transformed.
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Working Paper
No. 177 -
December 2002
A School for
the Subject :
The Vision and
Experiments of
Integral
Education
Ananta Kumar
Giri
Abstract
Education is key
to human
development but
the question is
what is the
meaning of
education. Since
the dawn of
humanity,
mankind has
struggled with
different
methods of
education which
would touch both
the head and the
heart. In the
last one hundred
and fifty years
we have
witnessed
different
educational
movements all
through out the
world for a more
humanistic and
child-centered
education that
would treat the
child as a
subject and as a
soul and not
only as an
object. The
present essay is
an inquiry into
child-centered
education and
pedagogy. It
describes the
vision and
experiments of
integral
education, an
alternative
educational
movement
inspired by the
goals of
integral
transformation
of self and
society charted
by Sri Aurobindo
and his
spiritual
companion, The
Mother. It
describes the
working of
Integral
Education
Movement in
Orissa where now
there are nearly
300 schools,
born of
community
efforts in civil
society,
striving to
embody the
vision of
integral
education in the
relationship
between the
teacher and the
taught and
between the
school and the
wider community
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Working Paper
No. 176 -
December 2002
Spiritual
Cultivation For
a Secular
Society
Ananta Kumar
Giri
Abstract
The project of
building a
rationalistic
self and secular
society was an
important part
of the project
of modernity and
this project is
now confronted
with an epochal
crisis. The
modernist
conception of
secular self,
society and
public sphere is
now under siege,
locally as well
as globally,
which in turn
calls for a
broadened
conception of
self, civil
society and
secularism.
Taking the
debates about
the crisis of
secularism in
contemporary
India as its
main point of
discussion, the
present paper is
an engagement in
a reshaping of
secularism as
not an apriori
denigration of
religion but as
an ethos of
pluralism,
non-violence,
kenosis and
self-emptying
which involves a
simultaneous
critique of
religious
tradition and
secular state.
Such a reshaping
of secularism,
the paper
argues, calls
for an
appropriate
spiritual
cultivation of
self and
society.
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Working
Paper No 175
Soiled
Agriculture and
Spoiled
Environment:
Socio-Economic
Impact of
Groundwater
Pollution in
Tamilnadu
S. Janakarajan
Abstract
The problem of
water pollution
poses a great
threat to basic
human living.
The ramification
of
pollution
is indeed more
severe in the
less developed
countries that
are afflicted
with chronic
problems of
political
instability,
lack of
political will,
high level of
illiteracy,
unceasing
poverty,
increasing
degree of
urbanization,
lack of basic
needs and basic
infrastructure
and women
subordination.
The subject
matter of
groundwater and
surface water
pollution gains
further
significance due
to economic
liberalization
policy,
to which most
underdeveloped
countries have
been subjected.
In
other words,
the phrase,
"sustainable
development"
emphasized in
many
international
fora,
has seemingly no
meaning in many
underdeveloped
countries.
Most river
basins,
in particular
India, are
heavily
polluted. In
addition, the
river basins are
stressed due to
competing demand
for water across
different uses
and users;
there is an
intense
competition in
tapping the good
quality water
among the
sectors such as
agriculture,
industry
and domestic.
In the process,
millions of
gallons of
good quality
water
is transported
from rural to
urban areas
everyday;
the net result
is the
flourishing
water trade and
the depletion of
groundwater
potential.
It causes more
anxiety
not only because
a huge quantity
of water is
transported from
rural to urban
areas, but also
because of the
release of
comparable
quantity of
water as
effluent.
This contributes
significantly to
water pollution
and ecological
degradation. In
addition,
it poses a great
threat to future
generations. The
present paper
discusses the
problem
groundwater
pollution in the
particular
context of the
Palar river
basin in
Tamilnadu, where
the tanneries
have contributed
to the environmental
degradation in a
large measure.
The paper also
discusses how
the dependence
upon the
official
agencies has in
no way helped
the society.
Even when judiciary
intervenes
actively,
things do not
change radically
because of the
feckless and
corrupt
governance and
the complete
lack of
monitoring
mechanism.
When everything
fails, social
dialogue process
seems to be the
key for problems
associated with
water management
and environment.
This is the key
message of this
paper.
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Working
Paper No. 174
Are Wells a
Potential Threat
to Farmers'
Wellbeing?
The Case of
Deteriorating
Groundwater
Irrigation in
Tamilnadu
S.
Janakarajan &
Marcus Moench
Abstract
With the
burgeoning
population and
fast industrial
expansion,
demand for water
also goes up
substantially.
In order to meet
the food grain
requirements of
the population
there is an
acute need for
expanding the
area under the
irrigated agriculture.
Since
in
many
States,
surface water
sources have
been utilized
fully,
there
has been a massive
expansion
of the
groundwater
irrigation.
With the
progressive
decline
in
the
water
table farmers
have resorted to
the competitive
deepening
of the wells.
This
has resulted
in
the increased
costs of well
irrigation and
further
has resulted
in
a new
inequity
among the well
owners and
between well-owning
and
non-well-owning
farmers.
Similarly,
the urban water
demands have
increased
tremendously for
domestic and for
industrial
purposes.
While there has
been an ever-raising
demand for water,
hardly has there
been any effort
to
develop the
infrastructure
to treat the
used water.
This is
dangerous
and
contributes
to
the pollution
of
the existing
water stock.
Therefore,
water
resources
are under severe
threat
not only
because of
the ever-increasing
demand
and
competing
demand (by
various
sectors) but
also because of
the diminishing
quality caused
due to the
discharge of
untreated
domestic sewage
and industrial
effluent.
In the coastal
regions the
problem gets
compounded due
to seawaters
intrusion.
The main
objective of
this paper is to
show how the
degradation of
the groundwater
resource base
through
over-extraction
and pollution
contribute to
inequity,
conflicts,
competition and
above all to
indebtedness and
poverty.
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Working
Paper No. 171
State
Perplexity:
The Politics of
Water Rights and
System Turnover
in Tamil Nadu
A.Rajagopal,
S.Janakarajan
Abstract
The motivation
for this paper
is to trace
historically
the
evolution of
water rights and
water laws in
Tamil Nadu and
their relevance
for water
resource
management in
the State. The
paper discusses
the
traditional/customary
water rights
enjoyed by user
communities for
many centuries,
the strengths
weaknesses of
these customary
rights, methods
by which the
State
appropriated
these rights,
the
problems
associated with
management of
water by the
State,
recent
attempts and to
transfer water
rights to user
communities as a
part of
a "System
Turnover
Programme" by
the World Bank
and its policy
implications.
The paper,
in
particular,
makes a
critical
analysis of the
Tamil Nadu
Farmers'
Management of
Irrigation
Systems Act,
2000 in the
context
of turning over
of rights to
user communities
under the above
programme. The
paper also
presents two
case studies
with a view to
discussing the
appropriation of
water rights by
the State and
the process of
bureaucratization
of water
management.
The case
studies
presented are
Palar Anicut
System (an age
old irrigation
system in the
erstwhile North
Arcot district)
and Parambikulam
Aliyar Project
(a new
irrigation
project in
Coimbatore
district).
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Working
Paper No.
170
Decentralisation
reforms and
public schools:
A human
development
perspective
Manabi Majumdar
Abstract
The paper offers
an overview of
some of the
current debates
on
decentralisation
and what
issues
endure.
Departing
somewhat from
the standard
approaches to
decentralisation
and adopting an
explicitly human
development
perspective, the
paper tries to
make and defend
four basic
claims.
First,
decentralisation
initiatives are
to be seen as a
programme within
a multi-layered
political system
which functions
at local,
provincial and
national levels,
and not
as a closed
narrowly
parochial
stand-alone
governance
regime, as some
advocates of
decentralisation
seem to claim.
Second, the
participation of
the historically
subordinate
social
classes/castes
in the newly
reformed
structure of
governance is a
key parameter,
over and above
the legal
reforms. That is
to say,
the broad
social and
political
process, taking
place outside of
the
constitutional
framework,
is quite
central to the
question of
improvement
of local
democracy.
Third, the
purpose of
democratic
decentralisation
is to
improve the
complementarity
between the
state and
society and not
to advocate a
zero-sum
opposition
between the two.
Finally,
in the
specific sector
of education,
decentralisation
reforms are
aimed not to
remove public
institutions
from involvement
in educational
matters but to
improve public
performance. The
'vision'
that currently
enervates our
school system is
that 'education
is not for
their (read
subaltern)
children'. This
narrow
conception of
schooling needs
to be
re-defined. It
is here that the
contemporary
effort to foster
participatory
democracy
presents before
us some genuine
possibilities
for school
transformation,
by galvanising a
larger process
of social and
political
transformation.
The local
democratic
institutions
and the
participatory
spaces they open
up will likely
impose on the
policy agenda a
generous
conception of
public schooling
that makes a
democratic claim
of basic
education being
the right of
every child.
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Working
Paper No. 169
Some
Observations on
Food Security,
Sufficiency and
Safety
V. Chandrasekara
Naidu
Abstract
After 35 years
of experience
with green
revolution
technologies in
agriculture both
educated and
common men have
realised the
risks of
consuming the
foods produced
based on the
excessive use of
chemical
fertilisers and
pesticides.
Hence the
agricultural
scientists began
advocating the
use of
bio-technologies
in agriculture.
Now, greater
emphasis has
been placed on
the promotion of
organic farming
based on farm
yard and green
manures and
herbicides,
etc.
Hence, people in
general have
realised the
health hazards
of consuming the
foods produced
based on the use
of chemical
fertilisers and
pesticides. The
green revolution
technologies
have also contributed
to the
environmental
and ecological
degradation in
the countryside.
Hence the country
has passed a
stage from
merely
increasing the
quantity of
food production
in order to meet
the consumption
requirements of
growing
population to
one of assuring
the masses of better
health and
environment
which would
enable them to
lead a productive
life in the
society.
Hence the
emphasis has
been shifted
from one of
quantity of
food to the
quality of food
produced and
consumed by
masses. The
damage done to
the health status of the people by
the green revolution
technologies in
agriculture
can be better
gauged
by
the World Health
Organisation's
(WHO) finding
that the Asian
mothers' milk
has the highest
proportion of
pesticide
residues in it
in comparison to
the other
continents mothers'
milk.
The suspicions
regarding the food
security of our
masses being
affected by our
entry
into
the
World Trade
Organisation
(WTO)
are found to be
misplaced and
unwarranted.
This is
because
most of the
problems
relating to food
security in the
country are our
own making.
It
is
the total
mismanagement of
our domestic
economy,
especially the
agricultural and
rural sector
that mainly
explains why
we are facing a
curious
situation of
mounting food
grain stocks
and hungry millions.
By any yardstick,
today we found
at least
one-fourth of
our population
suffering from
chronic
malnutrition and
hunger. While
the rural poor
are
threatened by
food insecurity
because of their
weakening land
base; the urban
poor are facing
food insecurity
because of
growing
unemployment and
deteriorating
environment.
In this context,
it is a pity to note that the government has yet to come out with a
National Food
Policy which
would go a long
way in
benefiting the
poor.
Even after 15
years of debate,
the government
could not
finalise the
food policy for
approval by the
parliament.
Meanwhile, the country's
food production,
especially its
rate of growth
has been found
to be slackening
in
per capita
terms, during
the decade of
1990s.
And the people
of this country
have realised
that they no
longer can
bother about the
quantity of food
produced without
ensuring its
quality.
In this
connection, it
is worth
pointing out
that while
developed
countries bother
about the
quality; the
developing
countries bother
about quantity.
So, the time has
come for the
countries
like India to
bother more
about the
quality of what
it produces
rather than how
much it is
producing. In
the changed
context of our
entry into WTO
regime,
it becomes all
the more
important to
enhance the
quality of our
products so that
we can benefit
more form
globalisation of
our economy. Of
course, first,
we should try to
produce
qualitative
foods for our
masses by masses
by using
bio-technologies
in the place of
green revolution
technologies in
the countryside.
The WTO
Agreement on
Agriculture (AOA)
which was
finalised in
1994 has nothing
to do with the
food insecurity
of our people.
Instead, the
agreements
contain
provisions for
the food
security and
safety of poor
masses in the
developing
countries.
Any country can
ban imports of
unhealthy foods
into them by
resorting to the
application of
pytosanitary
measures. And
all exports of
food items
should confirm
to
the
CODEX standards
agreed by all
countries while
entering into
the WTO Within
the countries,
any financial
allocations made
for the
alleviation of
poverty and food
security are
exempt from the
calculations of
Aggregate
Measure of
Support (AMS).
Hence the
increased food
insecurity of
our poor masses
can be
attributed to
the declining
purchasing power
in their hands.
This has
subsequently
resulted in
demand
constraints for
the food
produced in the
country. The
same demand
constraints also
explain the glut
in the market
for food grains
in the country. Even the distribution of food
grains through
PDS at low
prices could not
increase the off
take. Studies
have already
pointed many
loopholes and
inadequacies
in the
functioning of
fair price shops
run by PDS. Yet,
they continue to
be unresolved
with negative
consequences for
the poor.
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Working
paper No.
168
Labour-Intensive
Industries But
Units Without
'Workers':
Where Will ILO's
Social Dialogue
Begin?
Padmini
Swaminathan
Abstract
As part of its
exercise to
opertaionalize
its core
conventions the
ILO has
initiated what
it calls a
process of
"promoting
social
dialogue".
Social dialogue
plays a pivotal
role in
identifying the
important labour
and social
issues of the
ILO's
constituents.
Most
importantly, the
ILO's
fundamental
principles and
rights at work,
and particularly
the right to
associate and to
bargain
collectively,
are the
preconditions
for social
dialogue.
This paper
attempts at a
critique of the
ILO's social
dialogue
position and
argues that the
preconditions to
even begin such
a process lies
in pressurizing
governments and
employers to
change their
methodology and
terms of project
appraisal to
include minimum
norms of
employment and
environment when
setting up units
of production,
whether in free
trade zones or
outside. The
attempt to
increase
labour's
capacity to
associate and
bargain
collectively is
futile in a
context where
large numbers of
workers do not
have even the
minimum
recognition as a
'worker'. Based
on a set of
field-based
studies
conducted in the
last five years
in the southern
state of Tamil
Nadu and based
on our specific
exploration into
the terms and
conditions of
employment of
(women) garment
workers in the
Madras Export
Processing Zone,
this paper aims
at an
interrogation of
what passes for
industrial
development.
employment
generation and
gender justice
in the country.
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Working
Paper No. 167
December 2001
Print Culture
amongst Tamils
and Tamil
Muslims in
Southeast Asia,
c.1860-1960
SMA K Fakhri
Abstract
This paper is
about the
significance of
print in the
history of Tamil
migration to
Southeast Asia.
During
the age of
Empire people
migrated from
India to
colonial Malaya
resulting in the
creation of
newer cultural
and social
groups in their
destination (s).
What this
meant in a post-colonial context is that while they are citizens of a country
they share
languages of
culture,
religion and
politics with
'ethnic kin' in
other countries
Tamils and
Tamil-speaking
Muslims from
India were one
such highly
mobile group
They could truly
be called 'Bay
of Bengal
transnational
communities'
dispersed in
Myanmar,
Malaysia.
Singapore and
Vietnam. The
construction of
post-colonial
national
boundaries
constricted but
did not affect
the
transnationalism
of Tamils across
geographies and
nation-states.
A
thriving and
successful print
culture is a
pointer to the
manner in which
Tamils and Tamil
Muslim expressed
their
transnational
(Tamil)
identities.
Such a
print culture
this paper
suggests is a
rich and
valuable source
of social
history.
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Working
Paper No.166
A Study of
Enathimelpakkam
Village at the
Millennium
Threshold
V. Chandrasekara
Naidu
Abstract
This study aims
to capture some
of the crucial
changes brought
about in the
village economy
and society
which have
produced
differential
impacts on the
economic
conditions of
weaker sections.
The
village is
demographically
dominated by
Scheduled Caste
population for
over a period of
two to three
decades. It
continued to be
mainly an
agricultural
village with a
monocropped
cultivation of
HYV paddy. Its
land ownership
and economy was
dominated by a
few upper caste
Mudaliar
households. The
increased
mechanisation of
agriculture
resulted in the
fast depletion
of livestock
resources,
especially
previously owned
by low caste.
landless,
agricultural
labourers. This
group along with
marginal fanners
and tenants had
not only lost
their livestock
but also their
meagre land
resources in the
village.
Hence
landlessness has
increased
considerably
over the years.
Between our
survey years of
1993-94 and
2000-01, we also
found the
tenancy
declining both
in terms of the
number of
tenants
leasing-in land
and the total
extent of land
leased-in by
them. The
reverse tenancy
which we
observed earlier
had also gone by
the year 2000.
However, in both
the survey years
we found the
inverse
relationship
prevailing
between farm
size and
productivity.
This is because
the ownership of
agriculturally
related assets
such as pumpsets,
tractors and
capital by
large; land
owners helped
the~ to achieve
higher per acre
yield rates of
paddy. This goes
against the
usual argument
that small farms
are efficient
and productive
compared to big
farms, The
non-possession
of these
agriculturally
related assets
also crippled
the small land
owning farmers
to carry on
cultivation as a
profitable
proposition.
Moreover, the
modernisation of
agriculture for
over two decades
had not pushed
up the per acre
yield rates of
paddy.
The
average
efficiency
levels of
cultivation also
remained the
same for over
two decades. The
modernisation of
agriculture,
however,
attracted the
influx of
in-migrant
agricultural
labourers and
reduced the
average number
of days of
employment
secured by
resident male or
female casual
agricultural
labourers. But
the same factor
had not deterred
wage
improvements for
agricultural
labourers.
Between
our survey
years, while the
money wage rates
had more than
doubled; the
real wage rates
went up by more
than one-third.
By 2000-01,
there had been a
complete
monetisation of
wage payments in
agriculture.
The
previous decade
had also
witnessed the
complete
attenuation of
jajmani
relationships.
However, the
socio-economic
power structure
and its
concentration as
well as power
relations
remained
unaltered over
the years.
There had been a
gradual but slow
diversification
of occupational
structure and
employment among
the adult male
workers of the
village. While
there developed
no worthwhile
non-agricultural
occupations
within the
village; the
adult male
workers of the
village took
advantage of the
urban and
industrial
growth centers
which came up in
their
neighborhoods.
But the major
beneficiaries of
such non-agricultural
occupations
available
outside the
village came to
be the land
owning,
upper caste,
educated workers
rather than the
low caste, land
less, uneducated
workers. Between
1993·94 and
2000-01 I, there
were no
governmental
programmes
implemented for
the benefit of
poor in the
village.
But.
in the same
period, the
access of poor
to common
property
resources
available in the
village had gone
up, specially
for housing
requirements and
fuel needs.
However, the
revival of
village
panchayat in
1996 and conduct
of elections to
it had only
introduced
acrimony and
non- cooperation
between
different
sections of
village
community. And,
this had halted
many
developmental
programmes of
the village in
the later half
of J 9905. Since
the state
government had
not devolved
enough funds and
powers to
village
panchayat it
could not do
much even to
improve physical
infrastructure
in the village.
1Devillage
panchayat could
not exercise any
control over the
common property
resources in the
village and
failed to
mobilise any
resources on its
own.
Instead,
the big and rich
farmers of the
village had
vested control
over common
property
resources in the
village. As far
as providing
primary
education to
children is
concerned, we
observed a new
phenomenon of a
large number of
children going
to convent
schools in the
neighboring town
rather than to
the village
school which
imparts
education in
Tamil.
This happened
despite the free
education and
nutrious
noon-meal scheme
provided to
school children
by the state
government of
Tamil Nadu.
Hence the
village school
had become a
poor man's
school and every
economically
affordable
villager
realised the
importance of
providing
convent
education to his
or her children.
Finally, the
calculations of
absolute poverty
revealed that
poverty was
concentrated
only among the
categories of
marginal
farmers,
tenants,
agricultural
labourers and
non-agricultural
casual workers.
And, there was
no absolute
poverty
revailing among
the other
categories of
households.
However, there
had been a
marginal decline
observed in the
level of
absolute poverty
between our
survey years.
The poverty
level obtained
in the year
2000·01 was
closer to the
state level
poverty Anyhow,
it is important
to note that the
declining
ownerships of
land and
livestock
resources by the
households
belonging to the
weaker sections
can become a
potential threat
to village
economy, society
and polity in
the years to
come. It is also
important to
note from the
study that the
declining land
and livestock
resources among
the poor and
their restricted
access to common
property
resources have
all threatened
their food
security in the
village.
And the food
insecurity of
poor households
is infact
increasing over
the years:
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Working
Paper No.165
Rule of Law and
Indian Society:
Colonial
Encounters,
Post-Colonial
Experiments and
Beyond
Ananta Kumar
Giri
Abstract:
Establishing
rule of law has
been an
Important goal
of social
development and
social evolution
in modernity.
Rule
of law Is also
an integral part
of democratic
experimentations
historically
as well
as
contemporaneously.
But what is the
meaning
of
rule,
law and rule of
law? Do these
mean the same
thing in
different
cultures and histories?
Is
it
possible
to learn some
new insights and
modes of
engagement vis-a-vis
law and society
from a cross-cultural
meditation on
rule.
of law.
The paper
undertakes such
an exploration.
It covers a long
historical
terrain of more
than five
thousand years
touching briefly
the way Indian
society has
related to rule
of law at
various moments
of her
journey
and describing
the vision of
law in classical
India as a life
of Dharma,
righteous
conduct.
It also
discusses the
Colonial
construction of
rule of law in
India and
different
post-colonial
experiments too.
It particularly
discusses the
role of Constitution
of
India
in creating a
more equal and
just rule of law
between
individuals and
groups than what
existed under
traditional
authorities such
as Manusmriti.
Constitution
strives to
eliminate the
humiliation that
people suffered
under the
traditional
social system of
caste and
patriarchy,
thus creating
new ground for
realization of
human dignity.
The
realization
of both formal
and substantive
equality that
is
happening under
the rule of
law
in
contemporary
Indian society
can facilitate a
more creative
flourishing of a
life of
dharma or
righteous
conduct in self
and society.
But for this,
the paper argues,
rule of law must
be
transformation
ally
supplemented by
the Ideal and
practice of
self-rule. While
self-rule
is
facilitated by
existence of a
just social,
Institutional
and legal order
which
grants legal
equality to
individuals
Irrespective
class,
caste, religion
and gender,
mere existence
of legal
procedures in
society is not
enough for this.
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Working
Paper No.163
Trends in the
Costs or
Irrigation
Across Different
States in India:
The Case of
Major and Medium
Projects
A
Rajagopal and A
Vaidyanathan
Abstract
This paper is an
attempt to
estimate trends
in the real
costs of major
and medium
irrigation
projects in
different states
in India. It is
based on all
India Cost of
Construction
Index of Central
Water Commission
(CWc) adjusted
for variations
in labour cost
in different
states. The
trends are
estimated based
on both plan
data on
irrigation and
land use
statistics by
Directorate of
Economics and
Statistics from
different states.
It also attempts
to study the lag
effect between
investment and
area irrigated.
In addition, the
cost estimates
are related to
productivity of
irrigation in
different states
to get an idea
about the
economic
viability of
irrigation
projects.
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Working
Paper No.161
Gandhi, Tagore
and a New Ethics
of Argumentation
Ananta Kumar
Giri
Abstract
[Discourse,
dialogue and
deliberation are
important frames
for thinking
about and
creating an
ideal
intersubjective
condition and
dignified
society at
present.
Democracy is now
being redefined
as deliberative
democracy and in
this agenda of
democratic
reconstruction,
arguing with
participants in
dialogue both at
the
intersubjective
level and at a
wider
societa1level is
a valued
activity.
But what is the
ethics of this
process of
argumentation?
The present
article argues
that for the
sucess of
argumentation,
mere
argumentation is
not enough;
it must be
accompanied by a
relationship of
love and care.
The article
presents the
contours of such
a new ethics of
argumentation by
carrying out a
detailed
discussion of
the relationship
between Gandhi
and Tagore and
the way they
argued with each
other.
Their argument
and
counter-argument
was not for the
sake of winning
any egotistic
victory but for
exploring truth.
They argued
with each
other with love
and care and
their
argumentation
wnentation
combined
"cognition,
empathy and
agape,"
thus laying the
seeds of a new
ethics of
argumentation.
The article also
brings this new
ethics of
argumentation in
dialogue with
the agenda of
moral
argumentation
offered by
Jurgen Habemas,
the
heart-touching
social theorist
of our times]
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